Students tend to use hastily formed “concrete” (that is, superficial) problem representations. Experts use “abstract” representations that rely on “deep” knowledge; that is, imaginal and conceptual understanding of functional relations and physical principles that relate concepts (e.g., in the case of experts at mechanics, principles such as conservation of energy).
novices and apprentices tend to rely on superficial features and rote procedures whereas more proficient individuals apprehend the underlying relational structure, the constraints, and the pertinent principles (Carlson, 1990; Chi, Glaser, & Rees, 1982; Egan & Schwartz, 1973; Larkin, 1981; Reed, Dempster, & Ettinger, 1985).